Chinese Police Chief Talks with Mayorkas & How Fentanyl Narratives Shape China-US Relations
Professor Zha Daojiong of Peking University on China-US counter-narcotics cooperation
Yesterday, Chinese Minister of Public Security Wang Xiaohong held a video call with U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security Alejandro Mayorkas, just two days after President Biden's new executive order on border control. The timing of this call is particularly significant, as the U.S. is set to temporarily shut down asylum requests once the average number of daily encounters between official ports of entry reaches 2,500, according to MSNBC.
According to Xinhua, they’ve been talking about anti-narcotics issues and law enforcement cooperation.
Wang said the two countries need to deepen cooperation in areas such as drug control, repatriation of illegal immigrants, and combating transnational crime, in order to achieve more results in law enforcement cooperation.
Sometimes, narratives and perceptions are more powerful in shaping international relations than reality. In current China-US relations, China finds shrinking common ground with the US on global governance issues. First, it was trade, followed by security and technology. Now, the increasingly hostile rhetoric within the US Parliament targeting “Chinese Fentanyl” is narrowing the leeway for both sides to cooperate.
So, for today’s piece, I choose the recent work of Professor Zha Daojiong, named “The Fentanyl Issue and China-US Relations, “ Professor Zha is a prominent scholar at Peking University, specializing in international political economy and China’s external relations. His research focuses on non-traditional security issues, including energy, food, and drug safety, with a particular emphasis on how these issues impact China’s interactions with other countries. He is widely recognized for his expertise in fostering international cooperation and understanding within these complex and critical fields.
This article talks about the different perspectives of China and the US on the fentanyl issue. The author suggests that to control the international flow of fentanyl better and crack down on illegal activities related to it, both countries should focus on practical cooperation rather than tying it to broader diplomatic relations. Regardless of how the overall relationship between the two countries is framed in terms of "strategic competition" or "geopolitics," resuming negotiations on a bilateral judicial cooperation treaty and incorporating it into their domestic laws will help their judicial institutions move from working group mechanisms to more scientifically and professionally based exchanges and cooperation.
The article was published by The Journal of International Studies, a bimonthly academic journal sponsored by Peking University and published by the School of International Studies of Peking University and the Pan-Chinese Universities Association of International Politics Studies. It’s a leading journal in international studies in China.
After contacting Prof.Zha, I’ve been authorized to summarize this article in sections here, but as always, I highly recommend that readers check the original article. Press the subscribe button if you think it’s helpful. :)
What is Fentanyl?
Fentanyl is a synthetic medical ingredient, colorless and odorless, and significantly more potent than other opioids—about 50 times stronger than heroin and 100 times stronger than morphine. It was first synthesized in the late 1950s and approved for medical use in the UK in 1963, in the US in 1968, and in China in 1974. Fentanyl is listed by the World Health Organization as an essential medicine for treating cancer pain, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where morphine use is limited.
Medically, fentanyl is used for its rapid onset and strong efficacy with minimal adverse reactions. It is used in various final dosage forms, including powders, tablets, injections, capsules, solutions, patches, and nasal sprays. It is suitable for both adults and children and is often used for surgical analgesia, auxiliary anesthesia, and chronic pain management. Veterinary fentanyl, which is much more potent, is used only for large animals.
Due to its high potential for dependence and addiction, fentanyl production, logistics, and use are strictly controlled. Despite these measures, diversion (the loss, abuse, or entry into illegal channels of prescription drugs) remains a challenge. Fentanyl was listed in Schedule I of the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1964, reflecting the need for international coordination in regulations due to its potential for abuse.
Illicitly produced fentanyl is chemically similar to its legal counterpart but is often mixed with other substances to enhance potency, reduce costs, and increase addiction. This makes it highly dangerous, with even minuscule amounts capable of causing fatal overdoses. For instance, carfentanil, a derivative, is 100 times more potent than fentanyl and can be lethal in doses as small as a few grains of salt.
Classification of Fentanyl: "Designer Drugs" and "New Psychoactive Substances"
In drug abuse research, fentanyl is classified as a "designer drug" and a "new psychoactive substance" (NPS). The term "designer drugs" was coined by Gary Henderson in 1988 to describe synthetic drugs created to evade regulatory control by altering the chemical structure of existing controlled substances. These drugs are often highly potent and targeted, making their detection and control challenging.
Henderson's research highlighted the difficulty in detecting these substances using traditional methods. For example, in the early 1980s, anti-drug authorities in California discovered 3-methyl fentanyl, a highly toxic fentanyl derivative, in "China White," a synthetic drug resembling heroin. This discovery marked a new stage in the concealment of illegal drugs through chemical synthesis.
"Designer drugs" suggest intentional planning in their creation, whether for scientific research, legal development, or illegal manufacture. Unlike traditional drugs like cannabis or morphine, illegally produced fentanyl does not require agricultural resources and can be synthesized in underground locations using clandestine equipment, making it more difficult to regulate and police.
The concept of "new psychoactive substances" (NPS) was adopted internationally in the mid-2000s. NPS includes substances not yet controlled by international drug conventions but pose similar risks. Fentanyl and its analogs are part of this category due to their psychoactive effects and potential for abuse.
The choice of terms influences public perception and regulatory response. "Designer drugs" emphasize the intent behind their creation, while "new psychoactive substances" focus on the inherent dangers of the substances themselves. Both terms underline the complexity and challenges in regulating and combating the abuse of fentanyl and similar substances.
In prevailing narratives about international narcotics control cooperation, fentanyl's medical benefits are overshadowed by its potential for abuse and the emergence of its illegal analogs. Effective regulation and international cooperation are essential to control its production, distribution, and use, addressing both its legal and illicit forms to protect public health.
Historical Context of China-US Counter-Narcotics Cooperation
China-US counter-narcotics cooperation has its roots in the 1980s when the two countries began collaborating on various drug-related issues. This collaboration included scientific and technological exchanges on drug research, sharing intelligence to tackle bilateral and regional transnational drug trafficking challenges, providing judicial assistance, and conducting joint law enforcement operations.
In recent years, China has ramped up its domestic efforts to control fentanyl. One significant action was the destruction of a criminal gang in 2019 that was processing, trading, and smuggling fentanyl drugs with direct connections to the United States. This demonstrates China's commitment to addressing the fentanyl crisis, which has been a major concern for the US due to the high rates of opioid overdose deaths.
However, the two countries have faced challenges in their cooperation. In May 2020, the US Department of Commerce placed the Chinese Ministry of Public Security's Institute of Forensic Science (IFS) on its "Entity List." This action, unrelated to counter-narcotics cooperation, restricted the center's access to US technology and equipment. The center is a leading institution in China's forensic field, particularly in criminal science and technology. Despite these restrictions, China has continued its efforts to control fentanyl domestically.
The China-US Counter-Narcotics Working Group was suspended in August 2022 in the wake of the visit of then-US House Speaker Nancy Pelosi to Taiwan. This geopolitical event strained relations between the two countries, impacting their collaborative efforts in counter-narcotics.
From an academic perspective, international counter-narcotics cooperation aligns with the principles of functionalism in international relations theory. As technological advances facilitate international trade and transnational personnel flows, the risk of drug abuse also rises. No single country can address these challenges on its own, necessitating cooperation even between governments with opposing political identities. Such collaboration is essential for meeting human needs and promoting public welfare. As such, bilateral and international organizations should run parallel to diplomatic/political disagreements or disputes.
The global and persistent nature of the drug market underscores the necessity of daily international cooperation across scientific research, industrial development, government regulation, and law enforcement. This mutual learning process between countries should ideally remain within the professional realm. However, in the case of China and the US, counter-narcotics cooperation is both functional and political.
Observing the political dimensions of the fentanyl issue within the broader context of China-US relations requires considering inter-governmental diplomatic stance statements. For instance, a November 2023 working paper from the National Bureau of Economic Research proposed a causal relationship between US processed goods import volume and fentanyl overuse, particularly highlighting the direct link between consumer goods imports from China and Latin America and the US fentanyl crisis.
This perspective is significant because it echoes the "China Shock" proposition put forth by American economists in 2016, which linked the rise in Sino-US trade volume to challenges in the US domestic labor market. This narrative has since influenced US policy orientation towards restricting economic ties with China.
Diverse Narratives of China and the US on Fentanyl
The fentanyl issue has become a significant point of contention in China-US relations, gaining prominence due to the continuity and confrontational nature of policies under both the Trump and Biden administrations. Although fentanyl has only recently become a major research topic in China-US relations, the narratives from US media, think tanks and political circles often attract more attention.
US Perspective
From the US perspective, the fentanyl crisis is seen as a severe social crisis or "opioid epidemic." The US attributes a significant part of this crisis to fentanyl products, derivatives, analogs, and precursor chemicals sourced from China. While drug trafficking groups in Mexico, Latin America, and the Caribbean are seen as direct contributors to the spread of opioids, the US believes that addressing the fentanyl crisis hinges on China's cooperation in controlling the transnational flow of "designer drugs" and chemical precursors.
Chinese Perspective
At the diplomatic level, China disputes US accusations of non-cooperation. A Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs report criticized the US for making demands on other countries, likening it to "having an illness oneself but asking others to take medicine." China was notably absent from the "Global Coalition to Address Synthetic Drug Threats" launched by the US State Department in July 2023, which includes 81 national governments. This coalition is seen as part of the US's multilateral diplomatic pressure on China.
Professional Narratives
At the professional level, there is little controversy between Chinese and American experts in analgesia science. A 2017 report by the US National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and National Academy of Medicine on the opioid epidemic in the US barely mentions fentanyl, instead focusing on broader public health issues related to pain management and opioid use.
Chinese literature also recognizes the importance of opioids in medical treatment while acknowledging the balance needed to prevent abuse. Chinese pain management experts do not see the opioid abuse disaster as unique to the US, noting that opioid abuse has a long history in China. Chinese drug regulatory experts believe there is room to learn from the US experience in analgesic drug use and regulation.
Complicated Narratives on Fentanyl Origins
Narratives about the origin of illicit fentanyl in the US abound. The overuse of synthetic opioids in the US worsened in the 1980s with the promotion of prescription analgesics. After efforts to curb this, heroin became prevalent, followed by illegally produced fentanyl. The RAND Corporation reported that substances containing 3-methyl fentanyl, which caused numerous deaths in the early 1990s, were traced to an illegal workshop in Kansas. Similarly, a joint US-Mexican operation in the mid-2000s targeted fentanyl production in Mexico.
In China, judicial authorities have long cracked down on drug-related crimes, including the illegal production and distribution of fentanyl. Selling state-controlled anesthetic drugs online is treated as a crime of drug trafficking. China also enhances international cooperation by improving scheduling, supporting verification requests from other countries, and sharing case information. Domestically, public security organs actively seize scheduled substances and arrest suspects.
US Recognition of China's Efforts
China's efforts in controlling the transnational flow of fentanyl have been recognized by US counterparts. For instance, Gary Barksdale, Chief Postal Inspector of the US Postal Service, noted that China's compliance rate with US requests for customs electronic data on postal packages significantly improved from 32% in 2017 to 85% in 2019, surpassing the international average.
Diverse Views within US Agencies
Within the US, various federal departments have differing views on China's role in the fentanyl crisis. A 2021 report to Congress on class-wide scheduling of fentanyl cited assessments from 17 departments, highlighting diverse opinions on China's scheduling measures.
Research and Cooperation Perspectives
Some research literature suggests that China and the US have common interests in counter-narcotics cooperation, which can positively impact global governance of new psychoactive substances. Despite challenges posed by anti-globalization and great power competition, improving law enforcement cooperation mechanisms is seen as beneficial for stabilizing China-U.S. relations.
Expert interviews and literature research indicate that since 2017, there have been no significant differences between China and the US in daily regulation and joint law enforcement against fentanyl. Both countries have increased domestic regulation and international cooperation on precursor chemicals. Ongoing discussions focus on including chemicals identified by the US as originating from China in export control measures.
Think Tank Narratives
US think tanks, particularly the Congressional Research Service and Foreign Affairs, have published influential reports on the fentanyl issue. These reports often highlight China's role as a major source of illicit fentanyl. However, there are varying opinions within US think tanks. For instance, one Foreign Affairs article suggests that international cooperation on the opioid crisis could improve US relations with key countries, while another article argues that focusing solely on overseas sources will not resolve the US opioid problem. A third article attributes the fentanyl epidemic to "new geopolitics of synthetic opioid drugs" and recommends punitive measures against Chinese pharmaceutical companies.
Legislative Narrative Competition
The narrative competition in the US also influences legislative discussions. Congress and pressure groups propose narratives that align with their interests, aiming to advance beneficial solutions, avoid undesirable outcomes, support unique causal reasoning, and guide decisions toward specific interest groups.
Public Opinion and Cultural Factors
Despite efforts to address the opioid crisis, public opinion in the US often attributes the problem to external sources like China and Mexico. This "one-size-fits-all" attribution has deep roots in American popular culture and racial prejudice. Terms like "China White" and "Mexican White" reflect this bias. Additionally, statistical data from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates that opioid overdose deaths have increased significantly, particularly among non-Hispanic whites, further complicating the narrative.
In summary, in spite of the narrative diversity of the "fentanyl crisis" in the United States, the Trump administration and the Biden administration have raised the challenge of responding to it to an unprecedented level in connection with China, which not only conforms to the basic law that diplomacy is an extension of domestic politics in international politics textbooks but also has a deep foundation in domestic public opinion. From the perspective of controlling the (further) damage of this issue to China-US relations, the diversity of narratives ought not to become a distraction. Instead, a more meaningful issue is how to promote international counter-narcotics cooperation regardless of the potency of narratives of blame.
Conclusion
The fentanyl issue presents a complex challenge that necessitates continuous international cooperation. The harsh reality lies in the widespread dissemination of synthetic chemistry knowledge, which in part contributes to resilience of the global illicit drug production and trade markets. This issue is further compounded by the overuse of anesthetics and psychotropic drugs, making it imperative for countries like the US and China to collaborate despite differing narratives and geopolitical tensions.
Drug abuse and proliferation are not challenges unique to the United States. Various factors, such as over-prescription, recreational drug use among adolescents, and misleading pharmaceutical advertising, contribute to the problem worldwide. Historically, China and the US have learned from each other in fields like pharmacology, virology, medical regulation, and counter-narcotics. This mutual learning has been crucial for public health and the safety of drug use in both countries.
Illicit drug markets exhibit global characteristics and resilience against regulation due to their technical, economic, and social aspects. Government-led responses, including international cooperation to block identified substances, are often reactive. Real-time information exchange on precursor shipments, as recommended by the International Narcotics Control Board, is vital. The enhancement of international precursor control systems through electronic communication technology necessitates that countries ensure their manufacturers and exporters fully utilize these tools.
In the US, there is a growing narrative that links the opioid crisis to the rise in imports of processed goods. With the 2024 US election process underway, the "fentanyl issue" might resurface as a diplomatic contention point between China and the US. To prevent politicization from affecting scientific research, trade, and professional cooperation, it is necessary to promote cross-disciplinary research and joint releases of research results to counter negative public opinions.
The scope of China-US cooperation on fentanyl should expand to include regulatory cooperation on the transnational trade of equipment essential for molecular structure analysis and drug development, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Strict regulation and international cooperation on such equipment are crucial since they are used for both legitimate purposes and illegal drug synthesis.
Biotechnology could become an area of fierce competition between the US and China. If the US applies its competitive approach from the semiconductor industry to biotechnology, it could impact China's biopharmaceutical industry and regulatory capabilities. This potential competition should be addressed in China-US exchanges to avoid negative impacts on regulatory and judicial functions.
Effective regulation of fentanyl analogs, precursor chemicals, and the transnational flow of addictive substances, alongside combating drug crimes, should remain a functional cooperation area between China and the US. This cooperation should be based on mutual scientific recognition and case facts, rather than being influenced by broader political and diplomatic relations. Resuming negotiations on a bilateral judicial cooperation treaty and domesticating it would aid in transitioning from temporary working group mechanisms to more robust scientific and professional exchanges.
In conclusion, addressing the fentanyl issue requires long-term international cooperation, focusing on functional and professional collaboration rather than being swayed by geopolitical narratives. Both countries must navigate the diverse narratives and work towards effective solutions that prioritize public health and safety.